nagoyasuzukiamerica.com – Andrew Johnson’s presidency was one of the most contentious and divisive in American history. Rising from humble beginnings, Johnson became a Southern Unionist, whose firm commitment to the Union was tested as he faced the monumental task of leading the nation through the post-Civil War era. As the 17th president of the United States, Johnson was thrust into office following Abraham Lincoln’s assassination in 1865. However, his vision for Reconstruction—aimed at quickly restoring the South to the Union without punishing the former Confederacy—clashed sharply with Congress, especially the Radical Republicans, who sought a more transformative approach. Johnson’s policies, his tumultuous relationship with Congress, and his ultimate impeachment would leave a long-lasting legacy of controversy that continues to shape American history.
This article explores Andrew Johnson’s presidency, examining his political philosophy, the challenges he faced during Reconstruction, the key conflicts that arose between him and Congress, and the enduring impact of his tenure.
Early Life and Political Rise
From Humble Beginnings to Political Power
Born on December 29, 1808, in Raleigh, North Carolina, Andrew Johnson came from a poor, working-class family. His father died when he was young, and Johnson received little formal education. His mother, who had little means, struggled to raise him, and Johnson had to teach himself to read and write. His early years were marked by poverty and hardship, but through hard work, he became a successful tailor in Greeneville, Tennessee.
Johnson’s political journey began when he was elected to the local office in Greeneville and gradually climbed the political ladder. As a Democrat, he became a member of the Tennessee state legislature and later served in the U.S. House of Representatives and as Governor of Tennessee. Johnson’s rise to political prominence was not just due to his political skills but also his staunch advocacy for the Union. Despite being from the South, Johnson was a fierce opponent of secession and Confederate leadership, positioning himself as a defender of the Union even as the South drifted toward civil war.
A Unionist in the South
As the country moved closer to the Civil War, Johnson’s loyalty to the Union remained unwavering. When Tennessee seceded in 1861, Johnson remained loyal to the Union, making him one of the few Southern politicians to do so. His strong Unionist stance led to his appointment as Military Governor of Tennessee in 1862 by President Lincoln. Johnson worked to maintain Union control over the state, and as a result, he earned Lincoln’s respect.
When the Union victory seemed assured in 1864, Lincoln faced the challenge of securing the loyalty of Southern Unionists and restoring the Confederacy’s rebellious states to the fold. In a strategic move, Lincoln chose Andrew Johnson as his running mate for the 1864 election. Johnson’s selection was meant to appeal to Southern Unionists and demonstrate to the country that the government was committed to reuniting the nation. After their election victory, Johnson became vice president in March 1865.
However, just months after taking office, the course of Johnson’s presidency would change dramatically when President Abraham Lincoln was assassinated by John Wilkes Booth on April 14, 1865. Johnson’s sudden ascension to the presidency would put him at the helm of a nation that was reeling from the Civil War’s devastation and needed to find a path forward.
Johnson’s Vision for Reconstruction
A Lenient Approach
Johnson’s approach to Reconstruction, which sought to restore the South to the Union as quickly as possible, was rooted in his belief that the Southern states had never truly left the Union. He viewed the rebellion as an illegal act but believed that the Southern states should be allowed to rejoin without harsh punishment. Johnson’s lenient policies would prove to be a major source of tension between him and the newly empowered Radical Republicans in Congress.
In May 1865, Johnson issued a Proclamation of Amnesty and Reconstruction, offering a general pardon to Southern whites (except high-ranking Confederate officials and wealthy landowners) who took an oath of allegiance to the Union. Johnson’s plan required Southern states to nullify their ordinances of secession, repudiate Confederate debts, and ratify the Thirteenth Amendment, which abolished slavery. Once these conditions were met, the Southern states could reestablish their governments and send representatives to Congress.
While Johnson believed this plan would expedite national healing, it allowed former Confederate leaders to regain political power and failed to provide protections for the newly freed African Americans. Southern states swiftly held conventions to reestablish their governments, and many reintroduced Black Codes, which severely restricted the rights of African Americans.
A Return to Pre-War Leadership
One of the most controversial aspects of Johnson’s Reconstruction plan was his leniency toward former Confederate leaders. By allowing Confederate generals and politicians to return to power, Johnson effectively gave them the opportunity to regain control of the Southern governments. As Southern states were readmitted to the Union, they were largely governed by individuals who had once fought for the Confederacy.
This move angered the Radical Republicans, who believed that such leniency allowed the South to return to its old ways of racial oppression and political dominance by former slaveholders. For the Radicals, the goal of Reconstruction was not just to restore the Union, but also to ensure civil rights and equality for African Americans. Johnson’s failure to challenge the Black Codes and his opposition to granting African Americans the right to vote became major points of conflict between him and Congress.
Clash with Congress: The Radical Republicans
Rising Tensions Over Civil Rights
The Black Codes, combined with Johnson’s failure to push for meaningful reforms in the South, led to rising tensions between the president and the Radical Republicans. The Radicals, led by Thaddeus Stevens, Charles Sumner, and Benjamin Wade, viewed Johnson’s lenient policies as a betrayal of the ideals of liberty and equality that had motivated the Union victory in the Civil War.
In 1866, Congress passed the Civil Rights Act, which aimed to grant citizenship and civil rights to African Americans and override the discriminatory Black Codes in the South. Johnson, however, vetoed the bill, arguing that it was unconstitutional and an overreach of federal power. The vetoes marked the beginning of an intense power struggle between Johnson and Congress, with the Radicals pushing for stronger federal intervention in the South.
The situation escalated when Congress passed the Fourteenth Amendment, which granted citizenship and equal protection under the law to all persons born or naturalized in the United States, including African Americans. Johnson campaigned against the amendment, urging Southern states to reject it. Despite his opposition, the amendment was ratified by the required number of states in 1868.
The Military Reconstruction Act
As Johnson’s resistance to civil rights protections grew, Congress passed the Military Reconstruction Act of 1867, which placed the South under military rule and divided the region into five military districts. The act required Southern states to rewrite their constitutions, grant the right to vote to African American men, and ratify the Fourteenth Amendment in order to rejoin the Union.
Johnson, in opposition to the act, vetoed it, but Congress swiftly overrode his veto, further diminishing his authority. The Radical Republicans had effectively taken control of Reconstruction, and Johnson found himself marginalized, unable to stop their legislative agenda.
The Impeachment of Andrew Johnson
The Tenure of Office Act
The tension between Johnson and Congress reached a boiling point in 1867, when Congress passed the Tenure of Office Act, which restricted the president’s power to remove certain officeholders without Senate approval. The act was seen as a direct challenge to Johnson’s authority and a way to limit his ability to obstruct Congressional Reconstruction efforts.
In 1868, Johnson attempted to remove Edwin M. Stanton, his Secretary of War, who had been aligned with the Radical Republicans and supported their Reconstruction policies. Stanton’s removal violated the Tenure of Office Act, and Congress moved to impeach Johnson for this violation.
The Impeachment Trial
The House of Representatives voted to impeach Johnson in February 1868, charging him with violating the Tenure of Office Act. The case went to the Senate, where a trial was held to determine whether Johnson should be removed from office. After a tense and highly political trial, Johnson was acquitted by the Senate, falling just one vote short of conviction.
Though Johnson survived impeachment, his presidency was weakened beyond repair. His conflicts with Congress and his failure to gain the support of the American public marked the end of his political career. In 1868, he failed to win the Democratic nomination for re-election.
The Legacy of Andrew Johnson
A Controversial and Divisive Presidency
Andrew Johnson’s presidency remains one of the most controversial in American history. His failure to protect the rights of African Americans and his lenient approach to the reintegration of the Southern states left a legacy of tension and division in the country. The Black Codes and the rise of Jim Crow laws in the South were direct consequences of his policies, which allowed former Confederates to regain power and control over the region.
Johnson’s resistance to Reconstruction and his impeachment trial left a permanent mark on his legacy. His presidency was a critical moment in the history of Reconstruction, one of the most pivotal periods in American history. Although Johnson’s vision of a lenient and swift reintegration of the South was well-intentioned, it ultimately failed to ensure the protections and rights that African Americans desperately needed in the post-war era.
Today, Johnson is remembered as a deeply divisive figure in American history—one whose commitment to states’ rights and resistance to civil rights reform created deep divides that would take generations to heal. His presidency, and the tumultuous period of Reconstruction, set the stage for the long battle for racial equality and civil rights in the United States.